Uso, significado e imágenes asociadas al azul ultramarino en la Europa de los siglos XI-XV

Alicia Miguélez Cavero

doi:10.25145/j.cemyr.2026.34.18

Alicia Miguélez Cavero Universidad NOVA de Lisboa, Portugal https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8034-285X

DOI: https://doi.org/10.25145/j.cemyr.2026.34.18

Palabras clave: color azul, lapislázuli, Europa, siglos xi-xv, humanidades azules, humanidades ambientales

Resumen

Este artículo pretende explorar un período cronológico hasta ahora menos abordado, en lo que respecta al estudio de la imagen, desde el horizonte teórico y metodológico de las humanidades azules. Las dos cuestiones concretas de las que parte la investigación son ¿hasta qué punto el estudio de la imagen producida en la Europa medieval puede contribuir a avanzar en el conocimiento sobre las interacciones entre los seres humanos y los espacios acuáticos en el pasado? A su vez, ¿cómo ese nuevo conocimiento puede, en sí mismo, contribuir a forjar una sociedad más consciente y activa con relación a la sostenibilidad? Para dar respuesta a estas cuestiones, este trabajo propone el caso de estudio de las imágenes asociadas al azul ultramarino en la Europa de los siglos xi-xv.

Citas

Abu-Lughod, Janet (1989). Before European Hegemony: The World System A.D. 1250-1350. Oxford University Press.

Aceto, Maurizio (2021). «Pigments–the palette of organic colourants in wall paintings». Archaeolo¬gical and Anthropological Sciences, 13/159, 1-22 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-021- 01392-3.

Alart, Bernard (ed.) (1981). Documents sur la Langue Catalane des anciens comtés de Roussillon et de Cerdagne. Maisonneuve.

Alpers, Edward A. (2014). The Indian Ocean in World History. Oxford University Press.

Angelici, D. (2015). «Petrographic and Minero-Chemical Characterisation of Lapis Lazuli: A Pro-venance Study of Rocks and Artefacts from Cultural Heritage», Plinius, 41. https://www. socminpet.it/362/plinius-volume-41-2015.html.

Appadurai, Arjun (1986). «Introduction: Commodities and the Politics of Value», en Appadurai, Arjun (Ed.), The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective (pp. 3-6). Cambridge University Press.

Baader, Hannah (2017). «Livorno, Lapis Lazuli, Geology and the Treasures of the Sea in 1604 = Livorno, Lapislázuli, Geología y Los Tesoros Del Mar En 1604». Espacio Tiempo y Forma. Serie vii, Historia Del Arte 5, 141-167. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5944/etfvii.5.2017.19778.

Balaram, Padmini Tolat (2012). «Indian Indigo», en Feeser, Andrea, Daly Goggin, Maureen y Fowkes Tobin, Beth (eds.), The Materiality of Color: The Production, Circulation, and Application of Dyes and Pigments, 1400-1800 (pp. 139-54). Ashgate.

Barrett, James H. et al. (2022). «Walruses on the Dnieper: new evidence for the intercontinental trade of Greenlandic ivory in the Middle Ages», Proc. R. Soc. B, 289: 20212773. DOI: http://doi. org/10.1098/rspb.2021.2773.

Bennekom, Joosje van, and Dirk Jan Biemond (2012). «A Golden Landscape in an Ultramarine Sea: Research into the ‘Spanish Map’ of 1552-53». The Rijksmuseum Bulletin 60, no. 2, 100-115. https://doi.org/10.52476/trb.9873.

Bernabale, Martina, et al. (2025). «Characterization of ultramarine blue in Roman wall paintings: case study from Volsinii (Bolsena, Italy)». Anal Bioanal Chem 417, 1557-1566. DOI: https:// doi.org/10.1007/s00216-025-05745-y.

Bernard, Pierre (1978). «Les mines de lapis-lazuli du Badakhshan», en Henri-Paul Francfort y Pierre Bernard (eds.), Etudes de géographie historique sur la plaine d’Aï Khanoum (Afghanistan) (pp. 49-51, 95-97). Editions du CNRS.

Bretz, Simone (2012). «Materials Research and Conservation of the Reverse Painted ‘Spanish Map’». The Rijksmuseum Bulletin 60, no. 2, 116-29. https://doi.org/10.52476/trb.9874.

Brysbaert, Ann. (2006). «Lapis Lazuli in an Enigmatic «Purple»; Pigment from a Thirteenth-Cen¬tury BC Greek Wall Painting». Studies in Conservation, 51/4, 252-266. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1179/sic.2006.51.4.252.

Cabañero Subiza, Bernabé & Lasa Gracia, Carmelo (1997). «Cultura Islámica». Caesaraugusta, 72/11, 377-482.

Casanova, Michèle (2008). «Lapis lazuli from Tod Treasure, Egypt», en Joan Aruz, Kim Benzel y Jean Evans (eds.), Beyond Babylon: Art, Trade and Diplomacy in The Second Millenium B.C. (pp. 102 103). Metropolitan Museum of Art.

Casanova, Michèle. (2013). Le lapis lazuli dans l’Orient ancien. Production et circulation, du Néolithique au IIe millénaire av. J. C., CTHS, Documents Préhistoriques 27.

Casanova, Michèle (2014). «Luxuries of Precious Materials, The Royal Cemetery of Ur (Iraq) and the Lapis Lazuli, Witnesses of Intercultural Relations in the Near East», en Michèle Casanova y Marian Feldman (eds.), Les produits de luxe au Proche Orient ancien aux âges du Bronze et du Fer, Collection Travaux de l’Archéologie et de l’Ethnologie, René-Ginouvès 19 (p. 31 44). Editions de Boccard.

Casanova, Michèle (2019). «Exchanges and trade during the Bronze Age in Iran», en Jan-Waalke Meyer et al. (eds.), The Iranian Plateau during the Bronze Age (pp. 301-312). MOM Éditions. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4000/books.momeditions.8176.

Catalano, I.M. et al. (2007). «Lapis lazuli usage for blue decoration of polychrome painted glazed pottery: A recurrent technology during the Middle Ages in Apulia (Southern Italy)», Journal of Archaeological Science, 34/ 4, 503-511.

Cennini, Cennino (2009). Il libro dell’arte, o Trattato della pittura, a cura di Fabio Frezzato. Neri Pozza Editore.

Chalthodi, Hafis (2024). «Aden and Malabar: trade and religious networks between a South Arabian port and the medieval Malabar Coast». Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies, 53, 41-51.

Alves Dias, João (ed.) (1999). Chancelarias Portuguesas : D. Duarte, vol. ii, Livro da Casa dos Contos. Centro de Estudos Históricos da Universidade NOVA de Lisboa.

Chaudhuri, Kirti N. (1985). Trade and Civilisation in the Indian Ocean: An Economic History from the Rise of Islam to 1750. Cambridge University Press.

Clark, Robin J.H. et al. (1997). «Raman microscopy: The identification of lapis lazuli on medieval pottery fragments from the south of Italy», Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Molecular and Bio¬molecular Spectroscopy, 53/ 4, 597-603.

Crespí, Anna, Rius, Jordi y Melgarejo, Joan Carles (2009). «Nuevos Datos sobre el Contexto Geológico de la Aerinita en el Dominio Pirenaico», Macla. Revista de la sociedad española de mineralogía, 11, 65-66.

Dagenais, John y Greer, Margaret R. (2000). «Decolonizing the Middle Ages: Introduction», Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies, 30/3, 431-448.

Daryaee, Toruaj (2003). «The Persian Gulf Trade in Late Antiquity», Journal of World History, 14/1, 1-16.

Delamare, François (2013). Blue Pigments: 5000 Years of Art and Industry. Archetype Publications.

DeLoughrey, Elizabeth (2022). «Mining the Seas: Speculative Fictions and Futures», en Braverman, Irus (ed.), Laws of the Sea. Interdisciplinary Currents (pp. 145-163). Routledge.

Duffin, Christopher J. (2014). «The pharmaceutical use of Lapis Lazuli in the Ancient East», Phar¬maceutical Historian 44, 84-87.

Edwards H.G.M, Middleton, P.S. y Hargreaves M.D. (2009). «Romano-British wall paintings: Raman spectroscopic analysis of fragments from two urban sites of early military coloni-zation». Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy, 73, 553-560. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.saa.2008.10.027.

Favaro, Monica et al. (2009). «Characterization of lapis lazuli and corresponding purified pigments for a provenance study of ultramarine pigments used in works of art», Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 402. 2195-208. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-011-5645-4.

Fernandes Barreira, Catarina et al. (2016). «Through the eyes of science and art: a fourteenth-century winter breviary from Alcobaça scriptorium», Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies, 8/2, 252–282. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17546559.2016.1221119.

Ferwerda, Susanne (2024). «Blue Humanities and the Color of Colonialism», Environmental Huma¬nities, 16/1, 1-18. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1215/22011919-10943081.

Frison, Guido y Brun, Giulia (2015). «Ground lapis lazuli. A new approach to the history of the colour term ‘azure’ and the pigment ultramarine blue up to the 13 th Century», en Rosi, Maurizo y Casciani, Daria (eds.), Colour and Colorimetry Multidisciplinary Contributions Vol. XI B (pp. 265-276). Gruppo del Colore–Associazione Italiana Colore.

Frison, Guido y Brun, Giulia (2016). «Lapis lazuli, lazurite, ultramarine , and the colour term up to the 13th century», Journal of the International Colour Association 16, 41-55.

Ganio, Monica et al. (2017). «From lapis lazuli to ultramarine blue: Investigating Cennino Cennini’s recipe using sulfur K-edge XANES», Pure and Applied Chemistry, 90/3, 463-475. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2017-0502.

Gettens, R.J. y Fitzhugh, W.E. (1993). «Azurite and Blue Verditer», en Roy, Ashok, Artists’ Pigments: A Handbook of Their History and Characteristics, volume 2 (pp. 23-33). Archetype Publications.

Gillman, Matthew Elliott (2017). «Tale of Two Ivories: Elephant and Walrus», en Shalem, Avinoam (ed.), Treasures of the Sea: Art before Craft?/ Tesoros del mar: ¿El Arte antes de la destreza?, Espacio, Tiempo y Forma, serie vii. Historia del Arte, n.o 5 (nueva época), 81-106.

Goitein, Shelomo Dov y Mordechai, Friedman (2008). India Traders of the Middle Ages: Documents form the Cairo Geniza «India Book». Brill.

Gual Camarena, Miguel (1981). Primer manual hispánico de mercadería (siglo xiv). Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas.

Gillis, John (May/June 2013). «The Blue Humanities», Humanities: The Journal of the National En¬dowment for the Humanities, 34/ 3. https://www.neh.gov/humanities/2013/mayjune/feature/ the-blue-humanities (Accessed 12 May 2022).

Guidorzi, Laura et al. (2023), «Micro-PIXE and micro-IBIL characterisation of lapis lazuli samples from Myanmar mines and implications for provenance study». The European Physical Journal Plus, 138, 175. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1140/epjp/s13360-023-03768-x.

Hassan, I., Peterson, R.C. y Grundy, H.D. (1985). «The structure of lazurite, ideally Na6Ca2 (Al-6Si6O24)S2, a member of the sodalite group», Acta Crystallographica section C, 41/6, 827-832.

Herrmann, Georgina (1968). «Lapis Lazuli: The Early Phases of its Trade», Iraq, 30/1, 21-57.

Howard, Helen (2003). Pigments of English Medieval Wall Painting. Archetype Publications.

Hugon, Paulette (2008). «Étude des polychromies d›un portail gothique: l›exemple de la cathédrale de Senlis», L’Actualité chimique, n.o thématique «Chimie et patrimoine culturel: matières picturales, pigments, colorants et substances organiques», 318, 16-21.

Kinney, Dale (2011). «Ancient Gems in the Middle Ages: Riches and Ready-mades», en Brilliant, Robert y Kinney, Dale (eds.), Reuse Value: Spolia and Appropriation in Art and Architecture from Constantine to Sherrie Levine (97-120). Ashgate.

Klaas, Jörg (2011). Die «Ultramarinkrankheit». Studien zu Veränderungen in ultramarinhaltigen Far¬bschichten an Gemälden. Technische Universität München, Diss.

Kollandsrud, Kaja y Plahter, Unn (2019). «Twelfth and early thirteenth century polychromy at the northernmost edge of Europe: past analyses and future research», Medievalista 26 [Online] [Consultado 02.08.2025]. http://www2.fcsh.unl.pt/iem/medievalista/MEDIEVALISTA26/ Kollandsrud-plahter2605.html.

Kostov, Ruslan I. (2003). «The mineralogical knowledge of the ancient Bulgarians according to some medieval sources», ANNUAL of University of Mining and Geology «St. Ivan Rilski», vol. 46, part i, Geology and Geophysics, 87-92.

Kostov, Ruslan I (2004). «Lazurite from Central Asia According to the Ethnonym Balkhara», Annual Scientific Conference of the Bulgarian Geological Society «Geology 2004», 16-17 December 2004, Sofia, Proceedings, 38-40.

Kroustallis, Stefanos (2011). «Quomodo decoretur pictura librorum: materiales y técnicas de la iluminación medieval», Anuario De Estudios Medievales, 41/2, 775-802. DOI: https://doi. org/10.3989/aem.2011.v41.i2.371.

Kroustallis, Stefanos y Bruquetas, Rocío (2021). «La policromía del Maestro Mateo en el Pórtico de la Gloriaun estudio de tecnología artística», en Laborde Marqueze, Ana (coord.) La restau¬ración del Pórtico de la Gloria. Catedral de Santiago de Compostela: documentación, estudios y conservación (213-233). Ministerio de Cultura y Deporte, Subdirección General de Atención al Ciudadano, Documentación y Publicaciones.

Kulke, Holger (1976). «Die Lapislazuli-Lagerstätte Sare Sang (Badakhshan). Geologie, Entstehung, Kulturgeschichte und Bergba», Afghanistan Journal, 3, 43-56.

Jaspert, Nikolas (2025). Fischer, Perle, Walrosszahn. Das Meer im Mittelalter. Propyläen.

Lev, Efraim (2007). «Drugs held and sold by pharmacists of the Jewish community of medieval (11-14th centuries) Cairo according to lists of materia medica found at the Taylor–Schechter Genizah collection, Cambridge», Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 110, 275-293.

Lo Giudice, Alessandro et al. (2017). «Protocol for lapis lazuli provenance determination: evidence for an Afghan origin of the stones used for ancient carved artefacts kept at the Egyptian Museum of Florence (Italy)», Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences, 9, 637-651. DOI: https//doi.org/10.1007/s12520-016-0430-0.

Lo Giudice, Alessandro et al. (2009). «Multitechnique characterization of lapis lazuli for provenance study», Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 395, 2211-2217. DOI: https//doi.org/10.1007/ s00216-009-3039-7.

Lomuto, Sierra (2023). «Belle da Costa Greene and the Undoing of «Medieval» Studies», en Lomuto, Sierra (ed.), The «Medieval» Undone: Imagining a New Global Past, Special issue boundary 2. An international journal of literature and culture, 50/3, 1-30.

Magalini, Marta et al. (2025a). «Micro-computed tomography and laser micro-ablation on altered pyrite in lapis lazuli to enhance provenance investigation: a new methodology and its appli¬cation to archaeological cases», The European Physical Journal Plus, 140/59. DOI: https:// doi.org/10.1140/epjp/s13360-025-05988-9.

Magalini, Marta et al. (2025b). «First provenance evidence for lapis lazuli artefacts from Arabia: Analytical study of beads from the Umm an-Nar tomb DH7-1 at Dahwa, Sultanate of Oman», Journal of Archaeological Science, 174, 106131. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jas.2024.106131.

Marco Polo (2018). Le Devisement dou monde, Testo secondo la lezione del codice fr. 1116 della Bi¬bliothèque Nationale de France. Nuova edizione riveduta, a cura di Mario Eusebi y Eugio Burgio. Edizioni Ca’Foscari.

Majidzadeh, Yousef (1982). «Lapis lazuli and the Great Khorasan Road», Paléorient 8/1, 59 69. DOI: https//doi.org/10.3406/paleo.1982.4309.

Matthew, Louisa C. (2002). «: The Reconstruction of a Profession», The Burlington Magazine, 144/ 1196, 680-686.

McNeill, John R. (2019). «Cheap Energy and Ecological Teleconnections of the Industrial Revolution, 1780-1920», Environmental History, 24(3), 492-503.

Melo, Maria J., y Miranda, Maria A. (2014). «Secrets et découverts en couleur dans les manuscrits enluminés», en Miranda, Maria A. y Miguélez Cavero, Alicia (eds.), Portuguese Studies in Medieval Illuminated Manuscripts (1-30). Brepols.

Miguélez Cavero, Alicia (2016). «Looking ahead: new approaches to medieval Iberian heritage», Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies, 8/2, 131-147. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1754655 9.2016.1225226.

Miguélez Cavero, Alicia et al. (2016). «Beatus manuscripts under the microscope: the Alcobaça Beatus and the Iberian Cistercian tradition revisited», Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies, 8/2, 217-251. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17546559.2016.1221116.

Miranda, Maria A., et al. (2010). «On Wings of Blue: The History, Material and Technique of the Book of Birds in Portuguese Scriptoria», en Afonso, Luís Urbano (ed.), The Materials of the Image/As Matérias da Imagem (pp. 171-184). Universidade de Lisboa.

Mentz, Steven (2009). «Toward a Blue Cultural Studies: The Sea, Maritime Culture, and Early Mo¬dern English Literature», Literature Compass, 6/5, 997-1013. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741- 4113.2009.00655.x.

Mozzato, Andrea (2013). «The Pigment Trade in Venice and the Mediterranean in the Second Half of the Fifteenth Century», Renaissance Studies in Honor of Joseph Connors, eds. Machtelt Israëls and Louis A. Waldman. Villa I Tatti Series 29. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2013.

Nord, Anders G.y Tronner, Kate (2022). «Pigments used in medieval Scandinavia–types, origin, trading routes», Fornvännen. Journal of Swedish Antiquarian, 117/2, 124-133.

Oppermann, Serpil (2023). Blue Humanities. Storied Waterscapes in the Anthropocene. Cambridge Elements. Elements in Environmental Humanities. Cambridge University Press.

Oppermann, Serpil (2019). «Storied Seas and Living Metaphors in the Blue Humanities», Configurations 27/4, 443. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/CON.2019.0030.

Parodi, Gian Carlo (2015). «Lapislazzuli. Cos’é. Dove si forma e dove si rinviene», en Sframeli, Maria et al. (eds.), Lapislazzuli, Magia del blu (pp. 21-32). Sillabe.

Patterson, Catherine, Walton, Marc y Trentelman, Karen. (2009). «Characterization of Lapis Lazuli Pigments Using a Multitechnique Analytical Approach: Implications for Identifica¬tion and Geological Provenancing», Analytical chemistry, 81/20, 8513-8. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1021/ac901436g.

Plahter, Unn (2010). «The Trade in Painter’s Materials in Norway in the Middle Ages. Part 2: Materials, Technique and Trade from the Twelfth Century to the Mid-Fourteenth Century», en Kirby, Jo, Nash, Susie y Cannon, Joana, Trade in Artist’s Materials. Markets and Commerce in Europe to 1700 (pp. 64-73). Archetype Publications.

Pastoureau, Michel (2000). Bleu. Historie d’une couleur. Seuil.

Pegolotti, Francesco Balducci (1766). La pratica della mercatura scritta da Francesco Balducci Pegolotti.

Plesters, Joyce (1993). «Ultramarine Blue, Natural and Artificial», en Roy, Ashok, Artists’ Pigments: A Handbook of Their History and Characteristics, Volume 2 (pp. 37-61). Archetype Publications.

Prieto Espinosa, Carlos (2025). Los oficios de los diplomas latinos de la Cataluña altomedieval. Estudio de las innovaciones léxicas, Textes et Études du Moyen Âge; 106. Brepols.

PuertaVílchez, José Miguel (2018). «La Idealización de Al-Andalus Por Los Andalusíes», en González Alcantud, José A. (ed.), Paradigma Alhambra. Variación del mito de Al-Ándalus. Aportaciones a un debate germinal (pp. 53-106). Editorial Universidad de Granada.

Puiggarí, Josep (25 de abril de 1870). «Un cuadro de Luis Dalmau, siglo xv», La Ilustración Española y Americana, xiv/9, 188-189.

Re, Alessandro et al. (2011). «Lapis lazuli provenance study by means of micro-PIXE», Nuclear Instru¬ments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms, 269/20, 2373-2377. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nimb.2011.02.070.

Re, Alessandro et al. (2013). «New markers to identify the provenance of lapis lazuli: trace elements in pyrite by means of micro-PIXE», Applied Physics A, 111/1, 69-74. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1007/s00339-013-7597-3.

Re, Alessandro et al. (2015). «Ion beam analysis for the provenance attribution of lapis lazuli used in glyptic: the case of the Collezione Medicea», Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms, 348, 278-284. DOI: https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.nimb.2014.11.060.

Real Academia Española. Diccionario de la lengua española, 23.a ed., [versión 23.8 en línea]. [Consultado 1 Agosto 2025].

Robin, Libby (2018). «Environmental humanities and climate change: understanding humans geolo¬gically and other life forms ethically». WIREs Clim Change, 9: e499. https://doi.org/10.1002/ wcc.499.

Salvadó, Nati et al. (2014). «New insights on blue pigments used in 15th century paintings by synchrotron radiation-based micro-FTIR and XRD», Analytical Methods, 6, 3610-3621. https:// doi.org/10.1039/C4AY00424H.

Sánchez Martin, A. y García Torres, G. «La restauracion de ‘La Anunciación’ de Fra Angelico en el Museo del Prado», en Fra Angelico, ‘’La Anunciación’’ del Museo del Prado (pp. 45-52). Museo Nacional del Prado.

Sharma, Anjali y Singh, Manager R. (2021). «A Review on Historical Earth Pigments Used in India’s Wall Paintings», Heritage, 4, 1970-1994. DOI: https:// doi.org/10.3390/heritage4030112.

Smith, James L. y Mentz, Steven. (2020). «Learning an Inclusive Blue Humanities: Oceania and Academia through the Lens of Cinema», Humanities, 9/3, 67. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ h9030067.

Surmann, Ulrike (1999). Das Kreuz Herimanns und Idas, Reihe Kolumba, Bd. 4. Diözesanmuseum Köln.

Schweppe, Helmut (1997). «Indigo and Woad», en Fitzhugh, Elisabeth W. (ed.), Artists’ Pigments: A Handbook of Their History and Characteristics, Volume 3 (pp. 81-107). Archetype Publications.

Taniguchi, Yoko et al. (2022). «Organic Materials Used for Giant Buddhas and Wall Paintings in Bamiyan, Afghanistan», Applied Sciences, 12/19, 9476. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/app12199476.

Tomasini, Eugenia P. et al. (2016). «Virtuous colours for Mary. Identifcation of lapis lazuli, smalt and cochineal in the Andean colonial image of Our Lady of Copacabana (Bolivia)», Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 374: 20160047. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2016.0047.

Tosi, Maurizio (1974). «The lapis lazuli trade accross the Iranian Plateau in the 3rd Millenium BC», en Gururajamanjarika. Studi in onore di Giuseppe Tucci, vol. 1 (pp. 3 22). Istituto universi¬tario orientale.

Vidale, Massimo y Lazzari, Alessandra (2017). Lapis lazuli Bead making at Shahr-i Sokhta. Edizioni Antilia.

Vieira, Marcia et al. (2024). «The Colors in Medieval Illuminations through the Magnificent Scriptorium of Alfonso X, the Learned», Heritage, 7/1, 272-300. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ heritage7010014.

Villela-Petit, Inès (2004). «La petite clef d’harmonie», en Stirnemann, Patricia (coord.), Les Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry: L’enluminure en France au début du xve siècle (pp. 64-75). Château de Chantilly – Musée Condé.

Von Rosen, Lissie (1988). Lapis Lazuli in Geological Contexts and in Ancient Written Sources. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology and Literature, 65. Paul Åströms Förlag,

Von Rosen, Lissie (1990). Lapis Lazuli in Archaeological Contexts. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology, 93. Paul Åströms Förlag.

Walker, Alicia (2012). «Globalism», en Rowe, Nina (ed.), Medieval Art History Today-Critical Terms, Special Issue Studies in Iconography, 33, 183-196.

Wali Faryad, Shah (2002). «Metamorphic Conditions and Fluid Compositions of Scapolite-Bearing Rocks from the Lapis Lazuli Deposit at Sare Sang, Afghanistan», Journal of Petrology, 43/4, 725-747. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/petrology/43.4.725.

Wyart, Jean, Bariand, Pierre y Filippi, Jean (1981). «Lapis lazuli from Sar-e-Sang, Badakhshan, Afghanistan», Gems Gemmology, 17, 184-190.

Zöldföldi, Judit et al. (2006). «Where does Lapis Lazuli come from? Non-Destructive Provenance Analysis by PGAA», 34th International Symposium on Archaeometry 2-7 May 2004, Zaragoza, Spain (pp. 353-362). Institución Fernando el Católico.

Zorzan, Giulia et al. (April 2025). «Not quite ultima Thule: A voyage into the colorants of medieval Icelandic manuscripts», 20th international seminar on the Care and Conservation of Manuscripts, Copenhagen. https://nors.ku.dk/cc/cc20-programme/.